OrchestraOne Score Club - Special Edition

Welcome to week two of our Score Club Special Edition project, exploring the history of African American Music in the United States. This week we move forward in history to the 19th century, during and after the American Civil War. For a refresher from week one (pre-Civil War music) click here.

The evolution and influence of African American music in 19th Century America is a complicated and remarkably rich area of study. To guide us through this time period, we are so grateful to have musicology Professor James Davis (Ph.D., Boston University) from the State University of New York at Fredonia, who specializes in music and musicians of the American Civil War, and 19th century music in the US in general. Throughout this week’s edition, you will see clips from an interview between him, and our Music Director Eric Mahl. Click here to learn more about Dr. Davis.

Here is Dr. Davis Discussing the role of music in a soldier’s life:

Post-Emancipation (September 22nd, 1862), the Federal Union Army began recruiting African American soldiers. Some local militias were recruiting even before that. Nearly 190,000 African Americans joined the fight, and 7,122 of them were officers. These black soldiers were segregated into their own regiments, such as the 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry Regiment, and Company I of the 36th Colored Regiment (shown here) among many others. The contribution these soldiers made in the Civil War cannot be overstated. Simply put, if not for the volunteering of African American soldiers and the decisive battles they won, the Union Army may not have won the war.

As Dr. Davis Describes, music played an important and integral role in the lives of these soldiers. So much so that it began to define them and their regiments. On the field, the main music played was fife and drum music, and bugle calls. Every regiment had their own fife and drum corps and bugle player. Both were used to regulate days, and each song and call had their own purpose. The bugle calls were especially concise and stood for specific instructions. The video here shows the calls for Reveille (to wake up), Assembly, To Arms, and Calvary Charge. Both African American and White troops played this music.

Off the fields, regimental brass bands would perform to entertain the troops, perform in parades etc. Sometimes nightly, these bands would play serenades to the soldiers to aid in building community and pride. The African American Regiments had their own bands and as Dr. Davis explains, one can assume that the music these all-black bands played for the all-black regiments would be different from what their white counterparts were performing. Unfortunately, there is no evidence of what exactly they played.

One interesting thing about the marches like the ones these regimental brass bands played is its influence on music post-Civil War, notably for the famous African American pianist, Scott Joplin (1868 – 1917). Joplin’s music was an important step in the development of Jazz. Dr. Davis explains further here.

The development of music in the United States during and after the Civil War is a remarkable tale that exemplifies the idea of America as a “Cultural Melting Pot.” While some traditional African style and performance continued throughout the 19th century and even into today, the evolution of the music African Americans were creating is extraordinary. Not only did this music evolve in it’s own path, but post-emancipation the musical worlds of African American and White culture eventually began to mix as well, creating entirely new forms of music and entertainment. Dr. Davis explains further:

One example of the complexity of the feelings of the time and the exchange of cultures, styles and musics from African American and White communities is the minstrel show. While this form of entertainment is a terrible stain in the history of American music, its evolution, including its adoption and transformation by African American performers is noteworthy and led to a whole new genre of music. Dr. Davis unravels the Minstrel Show and it’s evolution here.

Much of the evolution not just of music but of the racial politics of the time can be explained using the minstrel show as its centerpiece. What started as an overtly racist form of entertainment, created by whites at the expense of African Americans, began to lose favor and those same African Americans began to take over the style and create entirely new forms of entertainment. The videos here are an example of this. We must give a disclaimer for the first, as it is an original recording of a traditional Minstrel that includes many racist overtones. The second is an example of Vaudeville, which evolved from the minstrel show. Here, the famous Nicholas Brothers perform.

Another example of this mixing is the story of the banjo. As an instrument that evolved from traditional African instruments, it became symbolic of African American music including that created by slaves on southern plantations. However, Whites in the north and south began to adopt the banjo and in fact it became one of the most popular instruments of the time, including with southern military personnel during the war. Dr. Davis explains.

This is a wonderful example of the banjo in an “in-between” stage of development. While it has taken the shape of the modern banjo, here, it still maintains a gourd for its body.

While musical traditions, instruments and performance began to mix and evolve, there was a maintained effort to keep the musical traditions from slave communities alive as well, not just for their remarkable artistry, but as a way to remember the atrocities of slavery. The Fisk Jubilee Singers, an all African American singer troop that began at Fisk University in 1871 is an example of this. Dr. Davis goes into how influential these singers were.

While the Fisk Jubilee Singers and other Black musicians and White abolitionists should be applauded for documenting, performing and publishing these remarkable works of art, it is important to note that the very act of writing this music down and performing it they way they did began to change the essence of slave songs and early gospel music. Some of the beauty and uniqueness of this music came from the fact that it was a tradition passed down orally that involved a large amount of improvisation. Dr. David explains further:

The Fisk Jubilee Singers and publishing this music in written form facilitated its propogation. Through the tours that the Fisk Jubilee Singers took all over the world (along with some other African American musicians) and the distribution of "Slave Songs of the United States” (which we covered last week), composers and musicians all over the world could experience this music and be influenced by it. Dr. Davis elaborates.

While writing down this music can be seen as an adoption of more White/European traditions by African Americans, the improvisation and elaboration traditions from slave songs and African roots remained in practice and continues today in music like Jazz and the Blues. Dr. Davis elaborates further on improvisation traditions, discussing too how performance style can be just as important at musical style in defining a genre:

All of these developments in musical and performance styles eventually led to the creation of one of the most quintessentially American music, the Blues. Drawing from African traditions of embellishment and improvisation, the call and response structure and style of slave songs, the newly popularized banjo (and eventually guitar) and other folk traditions from African and European roots, the Blues “began” sometime in the 1870s. One important change was the shift from the collective performance of Slave Songs to the more individualized performance of the Blues. Some have speculated that this may have been a reaction to the new-found freedom that African Americans were given post-emancipation. While Blues recordings from this time period are difficult to find, this performance of “Little Leg Women” by Big Joe Williams is an example of what early Blues music from the Deep South (where the Blues originated from) probably sounded like.

The Blues and Ragtime (pioneered by Scott Joplin) were two important and integral steps in the creation of Jazz, Rock and Roll, and countless other musical styles. Dr. Davis speaks here about how important this time period was in the creation of these genres of music:

Two important pioneers during this time were the Hyer Sisters. Anna Madah (ca. 1855 – 1929) and Emma Louise (ca. 1857 – 1901) were some of the first singers and producers of the African American musical theater. Their musical plays frequently depicted the plight of the slaves, but without the comedy that African American minstrel troops were performing. An important step in the development not just of black musical theater but all Broadway plays, these two sisters spread their music and message beginning in 1871. One notable performance was at the 1872 World Peace Jubilee, which was one of the very first integrated musical production in the country.

While these sisters sang music from White European composers like Verdi, Wagner and Rossini, they prioritized putting on fully-staged productions that told the story of African slaves. These productions included Out of Bondage, written by Joseph Bradford in 1876 (see poster here), Urlina, the African Princess written by E. S. Getchell, The Underground Railway, by Pauline Hopkins and Hopkin’s stage version of Uncle Tom’s Cabin in March 1880.

James Alan Bland (October 22, 1854 – May 5, 1911), was, as Dr. Davis explains, a successful and very popular Black minstrel performer and composer who wrote over 700 songs including “In the Evening by the Moonlight”(1879), “Oh Dem Golden Slippers” (1879) and “Hand me Down My Walking Cane (1880). He was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1970. His father was one of the first African Americans to graduate from an American College (Oberlin College).

James Bland had success that was very rare for black performers at the time.“Oh Dem Golden Slippers” is one of his best known works.

Dr. Davis points out the irony and strange humor of how his best known song was used. This African American who adopted minstrel performance (created by Whites and still in traditional practice in parts of the country at this time) and was enjoying success in both the White and Black communities, wrote the song that became the State Song of Virginia, which was the home of the confederate capital. That song is “Carry Me Back to Old Virginny.” Here, Ray Charles performs it.

As Dr. Davis explains, while there were a number of composers born in the late 19th century who would make a splash in the classical music world in the 20th century, classical music being written and performed by African Americans was very rare in the 19th century. This was partly because of racism, but also because of the prevailing idea of the time that Classical/Concert/Art music should be firmly based in the European Traditions (think Beethoven, Mozart, Debussy etc.) and incorporating any style of folk music would dilute its purity. Therefore, the African Americans in the United States who had not had been able to study the European traditions and whose musical world consisted of popular/folk music had little chance in breaking into this world.

There were exceptions however, most notably the virtuoso blind piano player, Thomas "Blind Tom" Wiggins (May 25, 1849 – June 14, 1908). Born into slavery, he could not perform the typical tasks given to slaves due to his blindness, and so (after deliberation) was allowed to wonder the plantation and play. By the time he was four, he had gained some piano skills by ear and had written his first piece by the time he was 5. It was a piece called “The Rain Storm,” and he wrote it after a particularly intense rain. He is now regarded as an autistic savant. His slave owner, General James Neil Bethune, recognized his talent and, at the age of eight, hired him out to perform to the promoter Perry Oliver. Blind Tom Wiggins earned up to $100,000 dollars a year (the equivalent of 1.5 million dollars today) which made him the highest paid pianist of his time. In 1860, he became the first African American to perform at the White House.

From an early age, “Blind Tom” would absorb and mimic the sounds around him. This made its way into the music he wrote as well. This piece, “Battle of Manassas” (1861) incorporates sounds like these throughout. At one point, the performer is asked to use voice while playing the piano to create “Chu” sounds and even whistle specific notes while playing (this happens at 6:00 in the video here). He also incorporated a number of folk tunes from the Civil War, and from popular music of the day. It is quite simply, remarkable.

Blind Tom’s piece “Water in the Moonlight” is a stunning example of his creativity and ingenuity as well. It seamlessly combines sounds from popular and folk music of the day in the United States and the European sounds from composers like Frederic Chopin and Rachmaninov. The result is spectacular. Blind Tom toured the world, and it is clear that through his ears alone, he was able to not only emulate music from all over the world but also make it entirely his own.

This period in American history is remarkable. The changes that occurred musically, politically and socially were astounding. How music wove itself through this time of turmoil is an amazing journey that any musician, musicologist or historian could spend their lives studying. This page acts merely as an introduction to this journey, and we hope it inspires some of you to continue research on your own!

Further reading:

Chude-Sokei, Louis. The Last "Darky" : Bert Williams, Black-on-black Minstrelsy, and the African Diaspora. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2006.

Davis, James A. Music Along the Rapidan: Civil War Soldiers, Music, and Community During Winter Quarters, Virginia. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2014.

Dubois, Laurent. The Banjo: America's African Instrument. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016.

Gac, Scott. Singing for Freedom: The Hutchinson Family Singers and the Nineteenth- Century Culture of Reform. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007.

Graham, Sandra J. Spirituals and the Birth of a Black Entertainment Industry. Urbana : University of Illinois Press, 2018.

Jasen, David A., and Gene Jones. Spreadin' Rhythm Around: Black Popular Songwriters, 1880-1930. New York: Schirmer Books, 1998.

Lhamon, W. T. Raising Cain: Blackface Performance From Jim Crow to Hip Hop.  Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998.

Lott, Eric. Love and Theft: Blackface Minstrelsy and the American Working Class. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.

McWhirter, Christian. Battle Hymns: The Power and Popularity of Music in the Civil War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012.

Shadle, Douglas W. Orchestrating the Nation: The Nineteenth-Century American Symphonic Enterprise. New York : Oxford University Press, 2015.

Next week we dive into Jazz, popular music, Duke Ellington, Florence Price, William Grant Still, Rock and Roll and much more as we enter the 20th century. Stay tuned!